Neo-Colonialism: The Last Stage of Imperialism

Nonfiction | Book | Adult | Published in 1965

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Summary

Background

Chapter Summaries & Analyses

Introduction-Chapter 4

Chapters 5-9

Chapters 10-14

Chapter 15-Conclusion

Key Figures

Themes

Index of Terms

Important Quotes

Essay Topics

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Discussion Questions

Background

Authorial Context: Kwame Nkrumah and Anti-Colonialism

Born on September 21st, 1909, in Nkroful, a village in the Western Region of the Gold Coast (modern-day Ghana), Kwame Nkrumah came from humble beginnings. His father was a goldsmith, and his mother, Elizabeth Nyanibah, was a retail trader. Nkrumah attended the local Roman Catholic school, where he was noted for his intelligence and leadership qualities. In 1926, Nkrumah enrolled in Achimota School, one of the leading educational institutions in the Gold Coast, where he was exposed to nationalist ideas and began to form his political consciousness.

Nkrumah was profoundly influenced by the ideas of Marcus Garvey, W.E.B. Du Bois, and other African-American intellectuals who advocated for Pan-Africanism and the rights of people of African descent worldwide. Nkrumah’s interest in Pan-Africanism deepened in 1945 when he attended the Fifth Pan-African Congress in Manchester, England. Nkrumah emerged from this gathering with a clear vision: The liberation of Africa from European colonialism, achieved through unity among African nations.

In 1947, Nkrumah was invited back to the Gold Coast by the United Gold Coast Convention (UGCC) to serve as the general secretary of the organization. The UGCC was formed by educated elites who sought self-governance, but Nkrumah’s radicalism soon clashed with the more conservative members of the UGCC. He broke away to form his own party, the Convention People’s Party (CPP), in 1949. Nkrumah’s CPP quickly gained widespread support due to its demand for immediate self-rule. In 1950, the CPP organized a series of strikes and protests, known as the “Positive Action” campaign, to press for independence.

The British colonial authorities arrested Nkrumah and sentenced him to prison. In 1951, while still imprisoned, Nkrumah’s CPP won a landslide victory in the Gold Coast’s legislative elections. He was released from prison and appointed Leader of Government Business, a position that allowed him to guide the colony toward full independence. On March 6th, 1957, the Gold Coast became the first sub-Saharan African country to achieve independence, taking the name “Ghana” in homage to the ancient West African empire. Nkrumah became the country’s first prime minister and, in 1960, its first president when Ghana declared itself a republic. Nkrumah sought to transform the country into an industrialized, socialist state, with the ultimate goal of making Ghana a model for other African nations.

His government embarked on ambitious development projects, including the construction of the Akosombo Dam, which provided hydroelectric power for the country, and numerous educational and health initiatives. Nkrumah worked tirelessly to promote Pan-Africanism on the global stage. He was instrumental in the formation of the Organization of African Unity (OAU) in 1963, an organization aimed at promoting African unity and cooperation. Nkrumah also supported liberation movements in other African countries, providing financial and material support to independence fighters in Algeria, Kenya, Angola, and beyond.

Nkrumah’s domestic policies faced growing opposition. His focus on rapid industrialization and socialist reforms strained Ghana’s economy, leading to rising unemployment and inflation. His government became increasingly authoritarian, with Nkrumah banning opposition parties and suppressing dissent. By the mid-1960s, his popularity had waned, both at home and abroad. In 1966, while Nkrumah was on a state visit to North Vietnam and China, a military coup backed by the CIA overthrew his government. Nkrumah went into exile in Guinea, where he was welcomed by President Ahmed Sékou Touré and made co-president in a symbolic gesture of solidarity. Nkrumah spent his remaining years in Guinea, continuing to write and advocate for African unity and socialism. His health deteriorated in the early 1970s and he was eventually flown to Romania for medical treatment. On April 27th, 1972, Kwame Nkrumah passed away in Bucharest, Romania.

Political Context: Pan-Africanism

The Pan-African movement is a political and social initiative that aims to unite people of African descent across the world, advocating for their collective political, economic, and cultural liberation. The movement is built on several key principles: Racial solidarity; self-determination; economic independence; and cultural revival.

Pan-Africanism emerged in the late 19th century, largely driven by African intellectuals and the African diaspora in the Americas and Europe. The movement was born out of the growing awareness of the shared experiences of exploitation and oppression faced by African peoples worldwide. The first organized attempt to unite African-descended peoples globally came with the Pan-African Conference of 1900, held in London. This conference marked the beginning of formal Pan-African discourse, calling for self-determination and rights for African peoples under colonial rule.

In 1963, the Organization of African Unity (OAU) was established as a continental organization aimed at promoting unity and solidarity among African states. The OAU sought to coordinate African efforts toward decolonization and resistance to neocolonialism, which Kwame Nkrumah termed the “last stage of imperialism.” Today, the Pan-African movement continues to inspire various initiatives across the globe. The African Union (AU), which replaced the OAU in 2002, upholds many of the principles of Pan-Africanism, seeking to foster greater integration and cooperation among African states. Similarly, Pan-Africanist ideas have found expression in the cultural renaissance of African heritage and the global push for racial justice.

Historical Context: European Colonialism in Africa

The European colonization of Africa, often referred to as the “Scramble for Africa,” was a rapid and aggressive occupation of African territories by European powers in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Before the onset of formal colonization, Africa was home to a wide variety of cultures, languages, and political entities. Africa was also connected to global trade networks, engaging with the Arab world, Europe, and Asia through the exchange of goods such as gold, ivory, and enslaved persons.

The early European presence in Africa, dating back to the 15th century, was mainly limited to the coast, where European traders, particularly the Portuguese, established trading posts and forts. The transatlantic slave trade, which began in the 16th century, played a major role in shaping early European interactions with Africa, leading to the forced migration of millions of Africans to the Americas. However, European powers largely avoided direct control of the African interior, focusing instead on economic exploitation through trade.

The formal colonization of Africa began in earnest in the late 19th century and was driven by a demand for raw materials, such as rubber, minerals, and agricultural products. European nations sought to secure exclusive access to these resources to fuel their industries and expand their economies. European powers also viewed Africa as a valuable strategic asset: Control of African territories allowed nations to secure important trade routes, ports, and coaling stations for their navies. European nations engaged in a competitive race to expand their empires. Many Europeans, driven by a sense of cultural superiority, believed it was their duty to “civilize” African peoples.

The immediate catalyst for the Scramble for Africa was the Berlin Conference, convened by German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck. The conference aimed to regulate the competition among European powers in Africa and established rules for the acquisition of African lands, such as the requirement for effective occupation—meaning that European powers had to demonstrate control over a region, not just claim it on paper. No African representatives were present at the conference, yet it set the stage for the partitioning of the continent.

By 1900, nearly all of Africa had been divided among European powers. The arbitrary borders drawn by European powers during colonization often ignored the existing ethnic, linguistic, and cultural divisions in Africa. These borders forced together diverse groups, leading to tensions and conflicts that persist today. Colonization also dismantled existing African political systems, replacing them with European models of governance that were often authoritarian and exploitative. Colonization also disrupted African cultures, traditions, and social structures.

African resistance to colonization was widespread, from early revolts such as the Zulu resistance in Southern Africa and the Maji Maji Rebellion in German East Africa, to the rise of nationalist movements in the 20th century. Over time, the exploitation and repression under colonial rule fueled African nationalism, leading to independence movements that culminated in the decolonization of Africa in the mid-20th century. As Nkrumah argues in Neo-Colonialism, however, many of the exploitative elements of the colonial era have endured even after the formal independence of African countries.