Socialism: Utopian and Scientific

Capitalism is an economic and political system which is characterized by private ownership of trade and industry, which is operated for profit.

Cartesianism is a philosophical and scientific system based on the works of French philosopher Rene Descartes (1596-1650). Cartesian philosophy interrogates reality through deductive reasoning and observation, emphasizing sensory experience as the source of all knowledge in the world.

Class struggle, also called class antagonism, is the inevitable conflict of interest between the working class and the ruling class. It is a foundational concept in Marxism and Marxian ideology.

As defined by Marx in Capital: Critique of Political Economy (1867), a commodity is “an external object, a thing which through its qualities satisfies human needs of whatever kind” (Marx 125). Under Capitalism, commodities are at the heart of trade and are exchanged for money, goods, and/or services.

Communism is a subcategory of Socialism which advocates for public ownership of all property; labor is divided amongst the people according to their ability to work, and the product of that labor is distributed according to their needs. While Communist ideology (including Engels’s) aim for the dissipation of state governance, Communist ideologies can range from anarchic (e.g., anarcho-communism, anarcho-syndicalism) to totalitarian (i.e.: authoritarian socialism/socialism from above, such as the models installed by Josef Stalin and Mao Zedong).

A dialectic (also known as the dialectical method) is a method of truth-seeking wherein two opposing points of view are placed in conversation. According to this method, if both perspectives are argued through reason, the truth of the matter will be uncovered. The dialectic method dates back to Classical Greek philosophy and is foundational in Hegelian and Marxist thought. 

Feudalism is a social, economic, and political system wherein the majority of citizens are obliged to work for the ruling class, which owned the land. Feudalism was the dominant system in Medieval Europe. Marxist thought argues that the state of modern industry and Capitalism evolved from the feudal social structure.

As defined by Marx and Engels, the Handicraft Period is the first period of Western industry following the Middle Ages. Engels describes the handicraft period as a system of production wherein small groups of craftsmen train each other and are each responsible for the product of their own labor.

Historical materialism is the Marxist theory of history. This view of historical events places human labor and economic development at the center of historical progress. Marx and Engels argued that this progress would reach its pinnacle once capitalism gave way to socialism, making the state obsolete.

Idealism is a philosophical theory which is credited to Plato. Its core assertion is that “reality” is essentially a construct of human perception. Although it is not mutually exclusive to materialism, the two schools of thought are often placed in contrast.

The Industrial Revolution describes a period spanning from 1760-1840, wherein Western European and North American manufacturing transitioned from hand production to mass mechanized production.

Liberalism is a broad political ideology which is defined by support for democracy, secularism, and individual rights. In modern Western Europe and North America, liberalism is considered a moderate philosophy and is not to be confused with the blanket term “liberal” which is often used to broadly denote the left-of-center in the United States. Marx and Engels rejected liberalism as part of their rejection of the state.

The manufacture period is the second of Engels’s three post-medieval phases of Western industrial production. As opposed to the small collectives of craftsmen individually creating goods in the Handicraft Period, the manufacture period is characterized by “greater numbers of workmen, grouped in one large establishment […] performing only one partial operation [each], so that the product is complete only after having passed successively through the hands of all” (13).

Marxism is a leftist philosophy of socioeconomics which explains human history through a historical materialist lens. It is characterized by support of socialism, rejection of capitalism, and frequent use of the dialectical method. Marxist ideology is extremely influential; elements of Marxist values and reasoning can be detected across the arts, humanities, and sciences.

Materialism is a philosophical theory whose core assertion is that all things in existence are the product of material processes and that the realities of existence can only be ascertained through sensory experience. Although it is not mutually exclusive to idealism, the two schools of thought are often placed in contrast.

The means of production are the tools required to produce commodities. In a post-industrial world, the means of production include factories, machinery, and raw materials, among other things. For example: the means necessary to mass-produce loaves of bread might include flour, water, yeast, salt, industrial-sized stand mixers and ovens, a premises on which to make the bread, and storage facilities for the final product.

Metaphysics is a branch of philosophy which focuses on the fundamental nature of reality, including elements beyond human perception.

The modern industry period is the third phase of Engels’s post-medieval history of industrial production. Modern industry is characterized by commodities which are first and foremost the products of machines. Workers in the modern industry period can lay no claim to these articles; their work “is limited to superintending and correcting the performance of the mechanical agent” (13).

A monopoly is a situation in capitalism wherein one seller or producer completely dominates their market and blocks all economic competition.

Also known as the working class, the Proletariat is comprised of workers who have no ownership of the means of production and therefore must trade their labor to make a living.

Scientific socialism describes Marx’s socio-economic theories. Scientific socialism is a branch of socialism which seeks to categorize and predict the progression of history through use of the dialectical and scientific methods. It is distinguished from utopian socialism in that its vision for the future of socialism is rooted in present realities, not mere ideals.

Socialism is a left-wing economic philosophy which advocates for common ownership of property and the means of production. Socialism is a broad category which encompasses numerous ideologies, including Marxism and communism.

As defined in Marxian theory, surplus value is the difference between the price of a commodity and the amount it cost to produce the commodity (i.e., the cost of the means of production and the compensation paid to laborers). In order for a commodity to turn a profit, the owner of the means of production must charge consumers more than the cost of materials, plant, and labor power. According to Marx, this means that laborers are necessarily paid less than they have rightfully earned.

Unlike scientific socialism, utopian socialism assumes that humanity will voluntarily embrace socialism, so long as they are convinced of its value. The concept is rooted in utopianism, the belief in or pursuit of a state which is fundamentally perfect.