The Unsettling of America

“The Conviction of Thomas Jefferson” discusses how Jefferson linked farming, education, and democratic liberty, believing that liberty was both a right and a privilege requiring stability, economic independence, and virtue. He saw farmers as the most valuable citizens, linking to their country through work, devotion, and community. Jefferson was wary of manufacturers, whose values he saw as abstract and self-interested. To support both essential citizenship and leadership, he emphasized the need for public education, emphasizing its importance for maintaining democratic stability, particularly for the farming population.

In “Justin Morrill and the Land-Grant College Acts,” Berry discusses the Morrill Act of 1892, which granted land to states to establish colleges focusing on agriculture and the mechanical arts and aimed to promote practical education for the industrial classes. Later acts, such as the Hatch Act and Smith-Lever Act, expanded the focus to research and extension services to improve agriculture and rural life. Morrill’s intent was to elevate the education of the working class and address agricultural problems, like soil depletion and population unsettlement, to help create a stable agricultural foundation.

“The Land-Grant Colleges” discusses how such colleges have drifted away from their original mission. While Jefferson emphasized the relationship between education and democratic liberty, Morrill viewed education more practically, aiming to correct labor and promote careerism. This shift led to a decline in educational standards, focusing on specialization over broad, community-oriented learning. Instead of serving local communities, the colleges have prioritized career-focused education and failed to uphold Jefferson’s ideal of promoting responsible and sustainable agriculture.

“Colleges of ‘Agribusiness’ and Unsettlement” explores how the land-grant colleges’ focus on “agribusiness” led them to prioritize industrial agriculture over small farms and rural communities. Research largely benefits large-scale growers and machinery companies while ignoring small farmers and farmworkers. The land-grant colleges’ pursuit of careerism and industrial interests led to irrelevant or frivolous programs, contributing to the decline of small-scale farming and rural stability. The shift to promoting tourism and urban development instead of supporting agriculture demonstrates their deviation from their original purpose. The colleges’ narrow focus and specialization led to their failure to address crucial agricultural, social, and ecological issues, ultimately working against the interests of small farmers and rural communities.

In “A Betrayal of Trust,” Berry highlights that the original land-grant colleges act envisioned education as both “liberal” and “practical,” aiming to foster a “sound and prosperous agriculture and rural life” (159). He notes that the initial purpose of these colleges was to educate farmers not only in agricultural techniques but also in leadership, thereby preserving and stabilizing rural communities. However, land-grant colleges increasingly betrayed this ideal as they shifted their focus, neglecting the moral responsibility to uphold rural values and instead serving the interests of agribusiness. The education they provided became fragmented, focusing either on the practical or the liberal, rather than integrating the two to create a well-rounded approach. The degeneration of standards led to the dominance of careerism over genuine community responsibility.

“The Vagrant Aristocracy” discusses how the educational system institutionalized certain “aristocratic” values of status and leisure. This led to a cultural hierarchy that values “office work” over manual labor and associates success with moving up and away from one’s rural roots. In this system, the goal is not to improve oneself by excelling in one’s current role or by contributing to the community but rather to escape to a higher social and geographic status. The university-based structures of success tend to detach people from their homes and communities, promoting social and cultural disintegration.

“The Status Quo” critiques an article by Earl O. Heady, a prominent agricultural expert, about the US having the most successful agricultural development program globally. Berry challenges Heady’s celebration of increased agricultural productivity, pointing out the costs of the industrialization of farming: It displaced millions of farmworkers, diminished the rural population, and made farm profits more vulnerable to price fluctuations. The US prioritized the growth of agribusiness over maintaining the health and stability of rural communities and farmland, and this focus on production resulted in significant social, economic, and ecological costs. Berry argues that this system is inherently destructive, promoting the expansion of large commercial farms while ignoring the value of small, sustainable family farms.

In “Experience and Experiment,” Berry contrasts two approaches: experience, which values cultural depth and strives for wholeness by learning from both success and failure, and experimental intelligence, which focuses only on what works immediately, often ignoring context and complexity. He criticizes the “experimental” approach of industrial agricultural experts, suggesting that it lacks cultural value, dismisses traditional knowledge, and seeks to replace rather than integrate past methods. This disregard for broader impacts, according to Berry, makes this kind of intelligence tyrannical and potentially totalitarian, as it waits for force to impose solutions.

In “Agribusiness as Orthodoxy,” Berry discusses how not all agricultural economists overlook the human and environmental consequences of agribusiness. Professor Philip Raup points out that large-scale farms shift costs like pollution and weakened communities onto society rather than assuming them internally. This system prioritizes profit while ignoring broader harms and aggressively rejects alternatives.

“Orthodoxy, Margins, and Change” examines the similarities between religious and agricultural orthodoxy. Berry argues that both are resistant to change even when facing negative consequences. True progress often begins at the margins, where individuals independently seek new ways. Before industrialization, localized knowledge instead of one-size-fits-all methods guided agriculture.

“A Pre-Industrial Example” points to the agriculture of the Peruvian Andes as an example of a sound pre-industrial system that harmonizes with the environment. Andean farmers use diverse crops at different altitudes, which supports resilience and genetic diversity. Their methods ensure sustainability, unlike industrial agriculture’s separation from natural systems.

In “Margins and Health,” Berry critiques the limitations and consequences of industrial agriculture’s narrow focus. Industrial farming replaced biological diversity with chemicals, reducing the connection between agriculture and the natural environment. Industrial agriculture’s focus on uniformity excludes potentially sustainable methods, whereas a healthy farm embraces diverse crops, animals, and ecosystems.

“A Marginal Place” describes a hillside near Berry’s home as an example of both the damage done by unsuitable farming practices and the earth’s potential for regeneration. The hillside was cleared and farmed, leading to erosion. Berry contrasts the resilience of untouched areas with those damaged by farming and discusses the importance of specific sustainable practices for hillside farming.

In “A Marginal Person,” Berry describes an elderly farmer who embodied the values of independence, care for the land, and traditional agricultural practices. After his death, the farm fell into neglect, and industrial disregard replaced its meaningful practices. Berry laments that modern society dismisses such independent farmers despite their valuable contributions.

“Tradition and Experience” emphasizes the importance of a way of thinking that has its roots in settlement, kindness to the land, and nurturing, in contrast to the exploitative mindset of industrial agriculture. Historical examples show that ordinary farmers practiced sustainability, proving that farming based on tradition and practical experience is sound, unlike exploitative industrial methods.

“Organic Farms” highlights the survival of traditional agricultural attitudes and practices, particularly among organic farmers who reject chemical inputs. He describes several successful organic farms, both large and small, that thrive using natural methods like careful crop rotation and manure, demonstrating that organic farming can be economically viable and sustainable compared to industrial approaches.

In “Dr. Commoner’s Argument,” Berry draws on Dr. Barry Commoner’s insights to support the benefits of organic farming. Commoner shows that while organic and conventional farms produce similar yields, organic farms use significantly less energy and have lower costs. Berry emphasizes that conventional farming’s dependence on petrochemicals has led to declining farm income and economic exploitation, while organic methods offer a more sustainable and affordable alternative.

“The Use of Draft Animals” critiques the reluctance of agricultural experts to consider alternatives to petroleum-fueled mechanization, like using draft animals. Berry highlights the bias against draft animals and argues for a diverse approach that includes traditional methods alongside modern advancements. He suggests draft animals are lightweight compared to machines and thus do not compact the soil. Therefore, draft animals could be the best solution for specific problems, especially on marginal lands.

In “Horse-Powered Farms,” Berry discusses several farms that extensively use draft horses as part of their agricultural practice. These farmers use a combination of horses and old tractors, practicing a more traditional and sustainable form of farming. Berry highlights the resilience and independence of these farms, showing how the use of draft animals promotes a diversified approach to farming, leading to sustainable, year-round use of the land.

“The Amish” presents the Amish people as an exemplary agricultural community that managed to maintain its traditions despite modern pressures. Amish spiritual values emphasize harmony among God, nature, family, and community, and these values guide their agricultural practices. They avoid technologies that would harm their community, practice traditional farming effectively, and maintain financial stability, all while reducing pollution and controlling erosion. Berry contrasts their success with industrial agriculture’s consumption-driven model.

“Production and Reproduction” contrasts the goals of orthodox agriculture with a healthier vision of unorthodox farming. Berry criticizes industrial agriculture’s aggressive focus on production and profit, likening it to an isolated male principle seeking unchecked growth. In contrast, reproduction represents balance, sustainability, and continuity, aiming for long-term health rather than short-term gain. He highlights the dissatisfaction of people whom industrial agriculture excludes, like those who wish to farm but face economic barriers and consumers who seek healthy, uncontaminated food.

“Public Remedies” discusses potential public actions to address issues in industrial agriculture. Berry advocates small, practical solutions, like using human energy productively and shifting governmental powers to protect the weak. He proposes several reforms, such as progressive taxation to ensure equitable land ownership, low-interest loans for family farms, production and price controls, and promoting local food self-sufficiency. In addition, he suggests encouraging agricultural diversity and reforming land-grant universities to prioritize farmers over corporate interests.

In “The Necessity of Margins,” Berry reflects on a 1975 Michigan incident in which a chemical mix-up contaminated livestock feed, causing extensive destruction. He attributes this tragedy to the dangers of a highly centralized and industrialized system that lacks safety margins. Berry notes that small-scale, diversified agriculture naturally includes protective margins, allowing for better care and damage control. He concludes that nature, when humans treat it with care, can heal both itself and humanity.

In the 1996 afterword of The Unsettling of America, Wendell Berry argues that industrial agriculture is fundamentally flawed. Therefore, despite its productivity, it results in significant ecological, economic, and human costs. He initially hoped that time would disprove his concerns, but time has only confirmed them. Berry criticizes institutions for preserving a mechanistic worldview that treats nature as a machine and dismisses healthier alternatives.

He highlights the harmful belief that the negative consequences of industrial agriculture, as of all human ingenuity and “progress,” are “inevitable.” Despite mainstream leaders’ resistance to change, Berry observes a growing grassroots movement focused on sustainable, local agriculture. This movement values the health of places, people, and communities over profit and gives Berry hope.

Berry calls for a return to an authentic, localized way of living, in which human work respects ecological health. Though perfection is impossible, striving for a healthy relationship with the land is essential. Berry believes this effort can grow without institutional support but he warns of the dangers of the lack of political representation, which could threaten its progress.